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Key Research and Writings
The Edge of the Sea
In early 1953, Carson began library and field
research on the ecology and organisms of the Atlantic shore. In
1955, she completed the third volume of her sea trilogy, The Edge of
the Sea, which focuses on life in coastal ecosystems (particularly
along the Eastern Seaboard). It appeared in The New Yorker in two
condensed installments shortly before the October 26 book release.
By this time, Carson's reputation for clear and poetical prose was
well-established; The Edge of the Sea received highly favorable
reviews, if not quite as enthusiastic as for The Sea Around Us.
Through 1955 and 1956, Carson worked on a number of
projects—including the script for an Omnibus episode, "Something
About the Sky"—and wrote articles for popular magazines. Her plan
for the next book was to address evolution, but the publication of
Julian Huxley's Evolution in Action—and her own difficulty in
finding a clear and compelling approach to the topic—led her to
abandon the project. Instead, her interests were turning to
conservation. She considered an environment-themed book project
tentatively entitled Remembrance of the Earth and became involved
with The Nature Conservancy and other conservation groups. She also
made plans to buy and preserve from development an area in Maine she
and Freeman called the "Lost Woods".
Early in 1957, family tragedy struck a third time when one of the
nieces she had cared for in the 1940s died at the age of 31, leaving
a five-year-old orphan son, Roger Christie. Carson took on that
responsibility, adopting the boy, alongside continuing to care for
her aging mother; this took a considerable toll on Carson. She moved
to Silver Spring, Maryland, to care for Roger, and much of 1957 was
spent putting their new living situation in order and focusing on
specific environmental threats.
By fall 1957, Carson was closely following federal proposals for
widespread pesticide spraying; the USDA planned to eradicate fire
ants, and other spraying programs involving chlorinated hydrocarbons
and organophosphates were on the rise. For the rest of her life,
Carson's main professional focus would be the dangers of pesticide
overuse.
Silent Spring
Starting in the mid-1940s, Carson had become
concerned about the use of synthetic pesticides, many of which had
been developed through the military funding of science since World
War II. It was the USDA's 1957 fire ant eradication program,
however, that prompted Carson to devote her research, and her next
book, to pesticides and environmental poisons. The fire ant program
involved aerial spraying of DDT and other pesticides (mixed with
fuel oil), including the spraying of private land. Landowners in
Long Island filed a suit to have the spraying stopped, and many in
affected regions followed the case closely. Though the suit was
lost, the Supreme Court granted petitioners the right to gain
injunctions against potential environmental damage in the future;
this laid the basis for later successful environmental actions.
The Washington, D.C. chapter of the Audubon Society also actively
opposed such spraying programs, and recruited Carson to help make
public the government's exact spraying practices and the related
research. Carson began the four-year project of what would become
Silent Spring by gathering examples of environmental damage
attributed to DDT. She also attempted to enlist others to join the
cause: essayist E. B. White, and a number of journalists and
scientists. By 1958, Carson had arranged a book deal, with plans to
co-write with Newsweek science journalist Edwin Diamond. However,
when The New Yorker commissioned a long and well-paid article on the
topic from Carson, she began considering writing more than simply
the introduction and conclusion as planned; soon it was a solo
project. (Diamond would later write one of the harshest critiques of
Silent Spring.)
As her research progressed, Carson found a sizable community of
scientists who were documenting the physiological and environmental
effects of pesticides. She also took advantage of her personal
connections with many government scientists, who supplied her with
confidential information. From reading the scientific literature and
interviewing scientists, Carson found two scientific camps when it
came to pesticides: those who dismissed the possible danger of
pesticide spraying barring conclusive proof, and those who were open
to the possibility of harm and willing to consider alternative
methods such as biological pest control.
By 1959, the USDA's Agricultural Research Service responded to the
criticism of Carson and others with a public service film, Fire Ants
on Trial; Carson characterized it as "flagrant propaganda" that
ignored the dangers that spraying pesticides (especially dieldrin
and heptachlor) posed to humans and wildlife. That spring, Carson
wrote a letter, published in The Washington Post, that attributed
the recent decline in bird populations—in her words, the "silencing
of birds"—to pesticide overuse.[29] That was also the year of the
"Great Cranberry Scandal": the 1957, 1958, and 1959 crops of U.S.
cranberries were found to contain high levels of the herbicide
aminotriazole (which caused cancer in laboratory rats) and the sale
of all cranberry products was halted. Carson attended the ensuing
FDA hearings on revising pesticide regulations; she came away
discouraged by the aggressive tactics of the chemical industry
representatives, which included expert testimony that was firmly
contradicted by the bulk of the scientific literature she had been
studying. She also wondered about the possible "financial
inducements behind certain pesticide programs".
Research at the Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of
Health brought Carson into contact with medical researchers
investigating the gamut of cancer-causing chemicals. Of particular
significance was the work of National Cancer Institute researcher
and founding director of the environmental cancer section Wilhelm
Hueper, who classified many pesticides as carcinogens. Carson and
her research assistant Jeanne Davis, with the help of NIH librarian
Dorothy Algire, found evidence to support the pesticide-cancer
connection; to Carson the evidence for the toxicity of a wide array
of synthetic pesticides was clear-cut, though such conclusions were
very controversial beyond the small community of scientists studying
pesticide carcinogenesis.
By 1960, Carson had more than enough research material, and the
writing was progressing rapidly. In addition to the thorough
literature search, she had investigated hundreds of individual
incidents of pesticide exposure and the human sickness and
ecological damage that resulted. However, in January, a duodenal
ulcer followed by several infections kept her bedridden for weeks,
greatly delaying the completion of Silent Spring. As she was nearing
full recovery in March (just as she was completing drafts of the two
cancer chapters of her book), she discovered cysts in her left
breast, one of which necessitated a mastectomy. Though her doctor
described the procedure as precautionary and recommended no further
treatment, by December Carson discovered that the tumor was in fact
malignant and the cancer had metastasized. Her research was also
delayed by revision work for a new edition of The Sea Around Us, and
by a collaborative photo essay with Erich Hartmann. Most of the
research and writing was done by the fall of 1960, except for the
discussion of recent research on biological controls and
investigations of a handful of new pesticides. However, further
health troubles slowed the final revisions in 1961 and early 1962.
It was difficult finding a title for the book; "Silent Spring" was
initially suggested as a title for the chapter on birds. By August
1961, Carson finally agreed to the suggestion of her literary agent
Marie Rodell: Silent Spring would be a metaphorical title for the
entire book—suggesting a bleak future for the whole natural
world—rather than a literal chapter title about the absence of
birdsong. With Carson's approval, editor Paul Brooks at Houghton
Mifflin arranged for illustrations by Louis and Lois Darling, who
also designed the cover. The final writing was the first chapter, "A
Fable for Tomorrow", which was intended to provide a gentler
introduction to what might otherwise be a forbiddingly serious
topic. By mid-1962, Brooks and Carson had largely finished the
editing, and were laying the groundwork for promoting the book by
sending the manuscript out to select individuals for final
suggestions.
Argument
As biographer Mark Hamilton Lytle writes, Carson
"quite self-consciously decided to write a book calling into
question the paradigm of scientific progress that defined postwar
American culture." The overriding theme of Silent Spring is the
powerful—and often negative—effect humans have on the natural world.
Carson's main argument is that pesticides have detrimental effects
on the environment; they are more properly termed "biocides", she
argues, because their effects are rarely limited to the target
pests. DDT is a prime example, but other synthetic pesticides come
under scrutiny as well—many of which are subject to bioaccumulation.
Carson also accuses the chemical industry of intentionally spreading
disinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims
uncritically. Most of the book is devoted to pesticides' effects on
natural ecosystems, but four chapters also detail cases of human
pesticide poisoning, cancer, and other illnesses attributed to
pesticides. About DDT and cancer, the subject of so much subsequent
debate, Carson says only a little:
In laboratory tests on animal subjects, DDT has produced suspicious
liver tumors. Scientists of the Food and Drug Administration who
reported the discovery of these tumors were uncertain how to
classify them, but felt there was some "justification for
considering them low grade hepatic cell carcinomas." Dr. Hueper
[author of Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases] now gives DDT
the definite rating of a "chemical carcinogen."
Carson predicts increased consequences in the future, especially as
targeted pests develop resistance to pesticides while weakened
ecosystems fall prey to unanticipated invasive species. The book
closes with a call for a biotic approach to pest control as an
alternative to chemical pesticides.
Promotion and reception
Carson and the others involved with publication
of Silent Spring expected fierce criticism. They were particularly
concerned about the possibility of being sued for libel. Carson was
also undergoing radiation therapy to combat her spreading cancer,
and expected to have little energy to devote to defending her work
and responding to critics. In preparation for the anticipated
attacks, Carson and her agent attempted to amass as many prominent
supporters as possible before the book's release.
Most of the book's scientific chapters were reviewed by scientists
with relevant expertise, among whom Carson found strong support.
Carson attended the White House Conference on Conservation in May,
1962; Houghton Mifflin distributed proof copies of Silent Spring to
many of the delegates, and promoted the upcoming New Yorker
serialization. Among many others, Carson also sent a proof copy to
Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, a long-time environmental
advocate who had argued against the court's rejection of the Long
Island pesticide spraying case (and who had provided Carson with
some of the material included in her chapter on herbicides).
Though Silent Spring had generated a fairly high level of interest
based on pre-publication promotion, this became much more intense
with the serialization in The New Yorker, which began in the June
16, 1962 issue. This brought the book to the attention of the
chemical industry and its lobbyists, as well as a wide swath of the
American populace. Around that time Carson also learned that Silent
Spring had been selected as the Book-of-the-Month for October; as
she put it, this would "carry it to farms and hamlets all over that
country that don't know what a bookstore looks like—much less The
New Yorker."[43] Other publicity included a positive editorial in
The New York Times and excerpts of the serialized version in Audubon
Magazine, with another round of publicity in July and August as
chemical companies responded. The story of the birth defect-causing
drug thalidomide broke just before the book's publication as well,
inviting comparisons between Carson and Frances Oldham Kelsey, the
Food and Drug Administration reviewer who had blocked the drug's
sale in the United States.
The Book-of-the-Month Club edition of Silent Spring, including an
endorsement by William O. Douglas, had a first print run of 150,000
copies, two-and-a-half times the combined size of the two
conventional printings of the initial release ]In the weeks leading
up to the September 27 publication there was strong opposition to
Silent Spring. DuPont (a main manufacturer of DDT and 2,4-D) and
Velsicol Chemical Company (exclusive manufacturer of chlordane and
heptachlor) were among the first to respond. DuPont compiled an
extensive report on the book's press coverage and estimated impact
on public opinion. Velsicol threatened legal action against Houghton
Mifflin as well as The New Yorker and Audubon Magazine unless the
planned Silent Spring features were canceled. Chemical industry
representatives and lobbyists also lodged a range of non-specific
complaints, some anonymously. Chemical companies and associated
organizations produced a number of their own brochures and articles
promoting and defending pesticide use. However, Carson's and the
publishers' lawyers were confident in the vetting process Silent
Spring had undergone. The magazine and book publications proceeded
as planned, as did the large Book-of-the-Month printing (which
included a pamphlet endorsing the book by William O. Douglas).
American Cyanamid biochemist Robert White-Stevens and former
Cyanamid chemist Thomas Jukes were among the most aggressive
critics, especially of Carson's analysis of DDT. According to
White-Stevens, "If man were to follow the teachings of Miss Carson,
we would return to the Dark Ages, and the insects and diseases and
vermin would once again inherit the earth."Others went further,
attacking Carson's scientific credentials (because her training was
in marine biology rather than biochemistry) and her personal
character. White-Stevens labeled her "a fanatic defender of the cult
of the balance of nature", while former Secretary of Agriculture
Ezra Taft Benson—in a letter to Dwight D. Eisenhower—reportedly
concluded that because she was unmarried despite being physically
attractive, she was "probably a Communist".
Many critics repeatedly asserted that she was calling for the
elimination of all pesticides. Yet Carson had made it clear she was
not advocating the banning or complete withdrawal of helpful
pesticides, but was instead encouraging responsible and carefully
managed use with an awareness of the chemicals' impact on the entire
ecosystem. In fact, she concludes her section on DDT in Silent
Spring not by urging a total ban, but with advice for spraying as
little as possible to limit the development of resistance.
The academic community—including prominent defenders such as H. J.
Muller, Loren Eisley, Clarence Cottam, and Frank Egler—by and large
backed the book's scientific claims; public opinion soon turned
Carson's way as well. The chemical industry campaign backfired, as
the controversy greatly increased public awareness of potential
pesticide dangers, as well as Silent Spring book sales. Pesticide
use became a major public issue, especially after the CBS Reports TV
special "The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson" that aired April 3,
1963. The program included segments of Carson reading from Silent
Spring and interviews with a number of other experts, mostly critics
(including White-Stevens); according to biographer Linda Lear, "in
juxtaposition to the wild-eyed, loud-voiced Dr. Robert White-Stevens
in white lab coat, Carson appeared anything but the hysterical
alarmist that her critics contended." Reactions from the estimated
audience of ten to fifteen million were overwhelmingly positive, and
the program spurred a congressional review of pesticide dangers and
the public release of a pesticide report by the President's Science
Advisory Committee. Within a year or so of publication, the attacks
on the book and on Carson had largely lost momentum.
In one of her last public appearances, Carson had testified before
President Kennedy's Science Advisory Committee. The committee issued
its report on May 15, 1963, largely backing Carson's scientific
claims. Following the report's release, she also testified before a
Senate subcommittee to make policy recommendations. Though Carson
received hundreds of other speaking invitations, she was unable to
accept the great majority of them. Her health was steadily declining
as her cancer outpaced the radiation therapy, with only brief
periods of remission. She spoke as much as she was physically able,
however, including a notable appearance on The Today Show and
speeches at several dinners held in her honor. In late 1963, she
received a flurry of awards and honors: the Audubon Medal (from the
National Audubon Society), the Cullum Medal (from the American
Geographical Society), and induction into the American Academy of
Arts and Letters.
Death
Weakened from breast cancer and her treatment
regimen, Carson became ill with a respiratory virus in January 1964.
Her condition worsened from there: in February, doctors found that
she had severe anemia from her radiation treatments, and in March
they discovered that the cancer had reached her liver. She died of a
heart attack on April 14, 1964.
Her interment is located at Parklawn Memorial Park and Menorah
Gardens in Rockville, Maryland.
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